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おろしゃ会会報 第17号その７ ２０１２年１月６日 |
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特別寄稿 「日本文化における和の働きについて」 オクサーナ・ジェレズニャク（ロシア科学アカデミー極東研究所日本研究センター） |
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オクサーナ・ジェレズニャクさんが寄稿してくれました。彼女は、モスクワ大学哲学科で美学を専攻、大学院では日本における美学教育について論文を書き、博士号を取得。1999年以来ロシア科学アカデミーの極東研究所日本研究センターで活動。2005年からは同センター主任研究員となり、現在に至っています。 おろしゃ会との接点は、彼女が2001年から2002年にかけて、東京外国語大学に留学して亀山郁夫先生の指導を受けていた時です。法政大学で行われた「21世紀のロシア・東欧への新しい視座」（2001年12月1日）と題するシンポジウムで「おろしゃ会」について話した際に、質問してくれたのが縁でした。その後、2002年秋から私がモスクワに滞在した際に、彼女とその家族に大変お世話になりました。オクサーナさんの現在の関心は、グローバリゼーションの下での日本の文化や教育の変容だそうです。（加藤史朗） |
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WA phenomenon in Japanese Culture
Oxana N. Jelezniak
History of Wa Concept of Wa accompanies Japanese civilization from the very
beginning. Into the other languages Wa is translated as a harmony. There is
an opinion, that Japanese devotion to Wa is connected with the formation of
Japanese national religion Shinto at thе end of IV and at the beginning of V
centuries, and it comes from the primitive cults of nature and ancestors.
That was the first stage on the way of forming of Japanese aesthetic world
perception into an integrity. Shinto worships nature beauty, paying particular
attention to it’s uniqueness. [Овчинников 1971: 20]. During a very long time, understanding
Wa as a harmony being based on Shinto religion has deeply and widely
penetrated into Japanese people’s life, Japanese culture, world perception, took
on a big impact practically onto all spheres of Japanese society life. And
today this phenomenon has a very big influence on modern Difference between Western and Eastern
world perception As it’s widely known, Western world perception is considerably
different from the Eastern one. Western world perception is based on ancient
Greek tradition. For example, representatives of Stoic philosophical school
asserted that this world is created exceptionally for human beings needs (the
same statements can also be found in Roman Cicerone speeches). This point of
view came from Stoicism into the Judaic-christian tradition. Anthropocentric
view was the basis for the material scientific and technological development
of Christian Europe of Modern Age. Marxists
also adhere anthropocentric view on the world. Japanese civilization is not anthropocentric, it is cosmic. It means that the main value criteria is not a human being, but Universum and the unity of human being with it. The main checkpoints of Japanese civilization are harmony and “way” (Japanese - do, Chinese – Dao). Japanese people aim not to separate themselves from the nature, discovering in it the embodiment of principle Wa. [Чугров 2010: 90]. Deep worship and feeling of need for a harmony played a key role in developing and using of Japanese language, in everyday etiquette of Japanese, in all numerous handicrafts and arts of Japanese culture. Japanese philosophy, ethics and etiquette are based on a fundamental principle, which asserts that harmony foregoes all other everything. Though it is very important to mention that notion of Wa is used by Japanese very often, but this notion is much different from the western logics, and sometimes even from the point of view of the common sense.
WA in philosophy and aesthetics
“Wa” is one of the
fundamental concepts of Japanese philosophy and aesthetics. The meanings of
hieroglyph itself are harmony, peace, accordance, serenity, sum, calm. The
other meaning of Wa is “Japanese”. This hieroglyph is in the ancient name of
Yamato country and it can be read as “great piece” or “great harmony”.
[Фельдман-Конрад Н.И. 1977: 21]. You know,
that in ancient times people called Japanese understanding of harmony is very similar to Chinese one. Here is a phrase from the famous Chinese treatise Lun Yui: “If naturalness exceeds breeding in a person, this person looks like a villager. If breading exceeds naturalness, he looks like a scholar. Only when breeding and naturalness balance each other, a person will become a noble man”. [Лунь-Юй, VI, 16.// Древнекитайская философия., т.1, 1972: 152]. That is why Japanese people emphasize Wa and harmony so much and give them so much significance.
Japanese people’s aspiration for harmony was marked in the first «Constitution of 17th
articles”, created by an outstanding statesman of ancient There is a big
difference between East and West understanding of harmony as an aesthetic
ideal. “Static symbol of West is the Zenon’s paradox about not existing of
movement: impetuously flying arrow is really immovable in every infinitesimal
moment of time”. Symbol of dynamics of East is a stone, which during
centuries, may be during thousands of years has been lying without moving,
but inside which invisible for the usual eye changes occur each second.
However, it was also known in ancient In the center of classical philosophy of Ancient East people is a process of uninterrupted development of the world and it’s mobility. Such constant mobility is so natural for east world perception, and according to that world perception only in it there is a constancy. To Japanese people’s opinion, balance and harmony are just in this uninterruptible changing of the world. The world with it’s uninterrupted mobility includes everything into itself, rejecting and excluding nothing. The idea that the world is something like a dynamic balance is tightly connected with the idea of devotion to the nature and striving for truthful reflection of the reality. The concrete
manifestation of Wa in Japanese aesthetics is a well-known Tea Ceremony.
Japanese people as well as before still have a nice feeling to a traditional
Tea Ceremony, which is penetrated by Wa spirit. On your way to the Tea House,
you can see stones covered with moss, an overgrown pond with lotus flowers
and bright fishes. The roof of this house is also made with a harmony with
the surrounded nature. It is made of haulm. It looks like there is no border
between the nature and Tea House itself, because the latter is built from the
wood where you can see a fanciful natural texture. From the bamboo terrace
there is a beautiful view to the garden. Inside the Tea Room there is a dull
paint jug with water, covered with patina, a scoop made of cut bamboo,
elegant ceramic crockery with natural texture. The clothes of the people who
make the ceremony are usually in soft colors. Everywhere you can feel the
breath of eternity, pacification and harmony. Each Japanese like this atmosphere,
which personifies Wa harmony in itself.
http://teatips.ru/index.php?act=2&id=549&dep=18]. Wa in Japanese society Wa is one of the fundamental principles of Japanese people value system. In Japanese society this is, from the one hand, the source of group integration and taking decisions. And, from the other hand, this is the principle that provides cooperation and mutual understanding between the people, principle, that demands tolerance, correct and friendly relations between them, principle of coordination of their purposes. Japanese
people used not to go into extremes, they never deny anything at the expense of
something else, they never push off different opinions. Japanese people can
dispute, convince each other, make mutual concessions until they come to an
agreement. [Transcending stereotypes 1999: 70]. Individuals tend to common actions and group success much more
than to individual actions and personal success… Cooperation is a traditional
value of Japanese people. Japanese culture appreciates cooperation much
higher than competition. And at the same time groups must cooperate too. But integration, formed by the principle Wa, mustn’t be
necessarily functional and logical. On the contrary, it is often based on
emotions and informal relations. From the point of view of applying Wa to
mutual relations between the people in Japanese society the meaning of Wa
doesn’t completely coincide with the meaning of word “harmony”. According to principle Wa, any decision is made on the base of unanimity. Those who took the decision unanimously got an impression that this decision is the result of free declaration of their will, but really, if to see at this attentively, this decision was taken under the pressure of group approbations. [Nakano 1995: 27-28]. Categorical imperative of principle Wa is to avoid conflicts and come to a consensus by any means. Wa is provided much due to the fact that the existence of individual in Japanese society is always thought inside the group. The individual feels his identity only when he is in a group. So, any psychological and material conflicts are decided inside the group. In order to keep Wa, all Japanese must follow and maintain a special code of ethic norms. It is worth to remember, that relations inside the group, organized according to Wa principle, base also on many other ethic principles… And at the same time principle Wa and other principles are not the imperatives. Japanese people don’t have ready methods for avoiding conflicts. Wa is rather some inner state of the person. [Чугров 2010: 87]. Recently some researchers in There are some facts given by Japanese scientists, that “deliberate attempts are taken to revive and intensify principle Wa”, that non-harmonic, crisis consciousness is still alian to Japanese people. [Umehara 2001: 166]. Particular and a very expressive confirmation to this fact can be found in some society opinion’s polls. For example, in one of such polls there was a question: “If you have to do a big and difficult work, what person would you prefer to have as a partner?” So only 28,1% of Japanese answered that they would prefer a talented person who is very difficult to deal with, but 68,1% preferred an ordinary person, but with a good character. 3,9% didn’t give their answer.[NHK, Poll №16]. So it’s clear, that Japanese people prefer easy to deal with and yielding partners even if they don’t have necessary talents for the common success, instead of talented and clever person but with so called “sharp” character. So in a such way they tend to maintain and keep Wa in relations, sometimes even taking a risk for their business interest. It is very important and interesting that their opinions on this problem haven’t changed during the last 35 years (from 1973 г. till 2008 г.)! Harmonious relations between the people in Japanese society is one of the stable values of Japanese society. Let’s take another question: “what would you do, if a strong discontent concerning labor conditions occurred in a recently formed company and you are the member of the company staff?”. In 2009 г. about 50% answered, that they would wait with a hope that everything will be arranged later. And about 25% would make a request to their boss to take necessary measures. [NHK, Poll №18]. So, as we can see, for the sake of maintaining harmony Japanese people are still ready to manifest unprecedented tolerance in situations when their interests are upset … And more over, according to statistics, the number of easy-to-deal with Japanese is increasing from year to year. [Чугров 2010: 87]. During a long time
for maintaining social order and harmony an archetypical principle chisoku ambun was used (which means
“each person must know his place and must keep to the frames of his status).
Only during the last two or three decades of XX century the norm of social
level has begun disappearing. If in ancient In today’s Confucious’s interpreter of the end of XIX century Nishimura Shigeki explained Confucious’s theory applying to Japan and Japanese society the following way: “Harmonious relations between the members of society are built on confidence and trust, fundamental felling of justice, and mainly on the loyal actions towards the other people”. [Yamamoto 1990: 453]. Wa in business
As for Wa in
business, there are as a minimum two opposite points of view. One point of view belongs to Boye Lafayette De Mente. In one of this scientist's books it is written that “The same traditions (as are described above), and rules of harmony dominate in managing companies, they are the basis of striving for the attaining consensus and group approaches to resolving different problems while making business”. I Western businessmen, who often have to deal with their Japanese colleagues, state that maintaining Wa even in business sphere is still primary in comparing with expediency. Japanese think that partners must wait until the demands of Wa for making a bargain will be attained. Deep understanding of Wa significance in Japanese people life can be seen, for example, in Japanese businessmen approach to business negotiations and management. That is namely Wa that can give the answer for the question why Japanese spend so much time and money on establishing relations of cooperation with suppliers and constituency. Foreign businessmen, who would like to establish and adjust reliable and trustworthy relations with Japanese companies will be able to do it only if they will use every opportunity to show their understanding and high appreciation of Wa in Japanese corporative culture and in Japanese society in the whole. Having done it, they will be able notably increase their chances for success in mutual interrelations and in collaboration with the Japanese. For all that concrete actions for joint achieving of Harmony must be included into strategy and tactics of the company. Among the concrete measures there are: 1) wide and open exchange of information (Japanese always would like to be sure that cooperation equally advantageous for the both partners); 2) the negotiations must be “face to face” on all levels – official and social (the Japanese call it “on the grass roots”); 3) make each other favors (services), mainly, between main figures of the companies, (and also between managers of more lower level, but who are responsible for the work of the whole collective and are the substitution of higher administration); 4) conscious and well thought application of significant elements of culture into the relations with Japanese colleagues – music, literature, fine arts and handy-craft. [Boye Lafayette de Mente 1994: 2-3]. According to the other point of view, which is supported by Japanese scientist Noboru Yoshimura and Аmerican researcher Phillip Anderson: “Very often, those who watches the work of Japanese company from outside, used to consider this work as a model of harmony. Of course it is undoubtedly that trust which employees of Japanese companies and Japanese organizations usually demonstrate between each other brings it’s positive and economical results. Japanese always strive for creating trustworthy relations between people and between companies. But, the statement, that Japanese firms and companies are harmonious only because their employees trust each other more than their Western colleagues, is not really true and is under a big question”. According to the opinion of these scientists, «harmony in corporation is more the result of organizing control mechanisms». [Yoshimura, Anderson 1997: 82]. Let’s imagine, that relations in Japanese company are harmonic. Then, according to logic, the most of employees must be satisfied with their place of work, job, colleagues, etc. However, according to the research, made in 80-th years of the XX century, there were only 15% of the people among the employees of Japanese companies who were satisfied with their job. And this is in contrast to their American colleagues. Among them there are 53% who are satisfied with their job and social position. So a question occurs. How can it be, if trust and harmony are the main Japanese values? [Yoshimura, Anderson 1997: 82]. The main thesis of Western scientists is based on the statement, that Japanese company as an organization looks like a clan, and everybody, who is in it, depends on a skillful social control, which is aimed on creating trust and harmony. [Ouchi 1981] или [Pascale, Athos 1981]. The scientists, who draw such analogy, have already institutionally underline, that harmony is the result of social control. Those who share such opinion emphasize the existence of harmony on individual level, and they suppose, that wide trust allow Japanese companies to function under an evident control. So, “Those scientists, who are sure, that namely trust and consensus make Japanese company work successfully, are making a mistake. Japanese behavior is harmonic, because all members of the staff in Japanese companies keep to very well learned by them behavioral models. As soon as the Japanese has learned a defined interpretation of context, after finding himself in a proper situation, he accurately begins following a proper example behavior that he has learnt long beforehand. Deviant or deflected from the social norm behavior is severely punished by the system in which the Japanese live. The functioning of the system is aimed on avoiding social embarrassment. So harmony and control that so hardly could be seen are based on Japanese constancy and necessity to confirm themselves and others accepted in Japanese society models of behavior. And outside watches can see namely this.” [Yoshimura, Anderson 1997: 83]. If to consider Japanese employee as a separate individual, it will be able to see that he is seldom more trustful and harmonic than his Western colleague. And more over, if he find himself in a difficult situation, Japanese manager can even behave himself in a such way that he can shock those people who used to think that keeping harmony and maintaining trust are the essence of Japanese style of making business. While communicating with Japanese managers you can notice, that they emphasize the significance of harmony for them very often. But harmony is something that must be reached as the result of the work, in other words that is “something that must be in outlet”, but this is not the main axiom of Japanese behavior. As for the Japanese, they appreciate the process of work much more than the result of this work. Japanese employee absorbed the model into himself, which dictates him to think more about the process of work and be ready without any odd reminding to make the next step. Any other behavior can interrupt the continuity of the process. In “Japanese” world, the first task of any employee is to do the necessary work with the necessary way. The time of finishing work and production of high-class product “in the outlet” are the second task, not the first. Japanese corporations employees are sincerely devoted to their clients, and clients’ service has a supreme significance for them. But this mustn’t be done to the prejudice of the working process. Context is very important for the Japanese. In case if the client asks him for something, Japanese employee will roughly break established norms and will break partner’s harmony without thinking. Among the factors that help to keep harmony in Japanese companies
it is necessary to mention the next one: Japanese employee usually considers
his future career through the prism of work in one and the only company. He
knows that the work at this company will be his constant place of work for
the whole life, he will never leave this job, will never quit. All employees
in Japanese companies know very well that in future they will have to deal
with the colleagues from other offices, for example, from And
finally is the most interesting! A question “What is Wa?”, was asked Japanese
company’s employees? And what were the answers! 1/3 of them said, that they
don’t know what does it exactly means. Another 1/3 answered, that it is
possible to attain a harmonic state, when you share something with the other
people, with the people who surround you in everyday life. Such definition of harmony is very similar
to the definition of West scientists. And finally the last 1/3 expressed
another opinion. They supposed, that harmony is something that they are
usually made to support. Something and somebody make them support harmony.
[Yoshimura, Anderson 1997: 87-88].
Wa in language sphere
One of the important spheres where attaining Wa is especially significant is the sphere of language. Here the manner of speaking is very important. It supposes having in mind an accurate selection of words and phrases, necessary for expressing your thoughts, tone of voice etc. The Japanese are very sensitive to such things in compare with the ordinary European people, for example. West people very often use words and manners, which annoy the Japanese, the words, which don’t suppose flexible relation, aggressive manner or different kinds of non tactfulness. And what is the most interesting - West people don’t pay any attention to this. The most problems in this sphere occur because, for example, English and other Western languages sound rude and straight for the Japanese. Whereas Japanese people used to speak «soft and vague» language. Very often West people use such expressions as «you must understand», «I know», «we know, for example, that …», «I give you my word, that …», etc. – all these words sound aggressive and annoying for the Japanese, especially if they are said in a strict and confident voice. Only after overcoming a categoricy it will be possible to understand the way of Japanese people thinking and develop in yourself the skill how to speak with Japanese people, sincerely and without offending your interlocutor. Wa
in politics Striving for maintaining harmony can be often seen in speeches of Japanese
politicians. For example, creating of harmonic mutual relations in The Japanese very often call all the people to be honest to each other. For example, Japanese thinker of XVII – XVIII centuries Ishida Baygan, while interpreting one of the pronouncements of Men-tsy, asserted that if people act in accordance with their inherent (присущей) honesty, then «harmony comes to the whole world, and people between four seas will become brothers and sisters». [Morita 1991: 167-168]. Conclusion
So, there are a lot of situations and
examples in Japanese people’s life where we can see the influence of
principle Wa. In my report I mentioned only the most typical and bright ones.
However, it is very clear that the Japanese try to establish and maintain
harmonic relations everywhere.
And at the end of my report I would like to say that feeling of harmony and sense of proportion that have been formed during centuries in Japanese people, have developed in their soul a special aesthetic responsibility, self-discipline and a very high degree of individual responsibility. And all these don’t allow Japanese people do any work badly, not aesthetically (it doesn’t matter we speak about everyday life behavior or about relations with relatives within a family or with colleagues at work, creating the works of fine art, or production of material utilitarian things). But on the contrary, it induce Japanese remember about Beauty and strive to search it and harmony in the outward things. Literature In
Russian Григорьева
Т.П. Дао и Логос. Встреча культур. М., 1992, С.73-86. Григорьева
Т.П. Красотой Японии Рожденный. М., 1993. Лунь-Юй, VI, 16.// Древнекитайская философия. т.1, М., 1972. Овчинников
В.В. Ветка Сакуры. М., 1971. Фельдман-Конрад Н.И.
Японо-русский учебный словарь иероглифов. М., 1977. Чугров
С.В. Япония в поисках новой идентичности. М., 2002.
In Japanese Morita Yoshio,
Shibata Minoru. Ken’yaku
seikaron-no susume. Tokyo, 1991. Umehara
Takeshi, Yeda Masaaki. “Nihon” to yu: kuni: rekishi to ningen-no saihakken.
Tokyo, 2001. NHK hoso bunka kenkyujyo. Nohonjin-no ishiki. www.nhk.or.jp/bunken/research/yoron/shakai/list_shakail.html In English Boye Lafayette
de Mente. 1994. «NTC’s dictionary of Japan’e Cultural Code Words”.
Lincolnwood, Illinois, USA. Nakano
Hideichiro. 1995. The Japanese Society// The Japanese Society. The
Sociological Essays in Japanese Studies. Сf. William
Ouchi. 1981. Theory Z: How American Business can meet the Japanese Challenge
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Richard
Pascale and Anthony Athos. 1981. The art of Japanese management: Application
for
American Executives, Transcending
stereotypes 1999. Transcending Stereotypes. Discovering Japanese Culture and
Education. Yoshimura N., SUMMARY Object of research is the phenomenon of Wa in Japanese culture. In the framework of the article we attempt to show how Wa influences different spheres of Japanese people’s life. There are a lot of aspects of life where the influence of Wa can be seen, but only a few will be considered in this article. In the beginning of it the meanings of word WA and the history of Wa in Japanese culture are described. Then Wa is considered in philosophy and aesthetics, and also Wa in Japanese society and Wa in business. The functual and pragmatic analysis is based upon ideas of outstanding scientists (orientalists), both Japanese and those of other countries. |
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あとがき 加藤史朗 おろしゃ会が発足してこの2月8日に13周年を迎える。集まり散じて人は変わったけれども、会としてはよく続いてきたものだと思う。私自身は後一年余りで退職である。そろそろ研究室や名古屋の宿舎を片付けなければならない。そうすると、いろいろ思い出深いものが「発掘」される。特に手紙は捨て難い。メールの時代になって余り手紙を書いたり、もらったりしないので余計にその存在感は大きい。最大の「発掘」は、林霊法先生からの手紙であった。高校3年の5月に頂いたものである。林先生は当時新設された東海学園女子短期大学（現東海学園大学）の経営に専念されるため、東海高校の校長職を辞されたのである。私は先生に「なぜ我われを見捨てるのか」と詰問すると同時に、当時迷っていた政治活動への参加の是非について、先生に相談したのであった。随分と失礼で甘えた手紙を書いたものだと今思い返すと赤面の至りである。ところが、こうした生意気な17歳の一生徒に対して、先生は便せん四枚の便りを寄せて下さった。東海高校を辞めるのは後ろ髪を引かれる思いであること、政治活動をするには私が余りにも勉強不足で未熟であることなどが懇切丁寧に述べられていた。当時、先生は今の私よりはるかに若い57歳の働き盛りでいらした。 大学生となって上京した私は、帰省するたびに、先生が中日ビルで開催されていた日曜宗教講座を聴講し、先生が発行されていた冊子『大地』を愛読した。古希を迎えられた先生は百万遍知恩寺の法主となられ、京都に移られた。私もほとんど帰省せず、先生との連絡はいつしか途絶えてしまった。先生が亡くなられたのは、2000年の3月。昭和区西畑町にある養林寺でのご葬儀が先生との最後の再会の場となった。無念の気持ちが残った。しかし今号に登場していただいた安井亮平先生や宮崎宏一先生とは、夢ではなく現で（не во
сне, а наяву ネ ヴァスネ、ア ナヤヴー）お会い出来たのである。この上ない幸せであった。まだまだお話ししたいことが沢山ある。 ところで私は、こうした先生方のように生徒や学生たちに真摯に向きあってきたかと自問する。答えは否である。生来、好悪の念が抜き難く、困った性格である。しかし、後一年の教員生活で出来るだけ若者たちにきちんと会っておきたい。手始めに1月13日（金）、田辺先生の車で東京へ向かう途中、静岡県立御殿場高校を訪ねた。おろしゃ会の元会長・田川聡子さんが同校で新任教員として国語を教えている。生徒が可愛くて仕方がないと言っていた。偉いものだ！3月には、時事通信の特派員としてモスクワで活躍している、やはり元会長の平岩貴比古さんを訪ねようかと思っている。迷惑な話かもしれないけれども、今の内だという気がしているから。それに何と言っても「青年即未来」である。
2012年1月13日 御殿場高校にて 田辺先生と田川さん
林霊法先生の手紙（昭和39年5月15日付） 「おろしゃ 会」会報 第17号 （2012年1月23日発行） 発行 〒480-1198 愛知県愛知郡長久手市熊張茨ヶ廻間1552-3 学生会館D-202（代表・上坂勇喜） 発行責任者 加藤史朗（ 〒480-1198 愛知県愛知郡長久手市熊張茨ヶ廻間1552-3 http://www.for.aichi-pu.ac.jp/~kshiro/orosia.html mail to: kshiro@for.aichi-pu.ac.jp 制作 成文社 http//www.seibunsha.net/ |
